Figure 2. Comparison of Total Oxidative Stress (TOS) (A), Total Antioxidant Capacity (TAC) (B), TAC/TOC ratio (C), Glutathione Peroxidase (GPx) activity (D), and Malondialdehyde (MDA) levels (E) among different study groups. AZO- : non-obstructive azoospermia with negative sperm retrieval, AZO+:non-obstructive azoospermia with positive sperm retrieval OAT:Oligoasthenoteratozoospermia, OA:Oligoasthenospermia and OT:Oligoteratozoospermia.Data are shown as mean±SEM. Statistical significance is indicated by asterisks, with *p<0.05, **p<0.01, and ***p<0.001.