Table 2. Comparison of semen parameters before and after preparation using Density Gradient Centrifugation (DGC) and Microfluidics (MC) Values are presented as mean±standard deviation. Within-group comparisons (p12, p34) and between-group comparisons (p13, p24) are shown. Both methods significantly improved motility, viability, morphology, and DFI (p<0.0001). The MC group showed lower post-preparation DFI and higher motile sperm recovery rate. Abbreviations: DFI=DNA Fragmentation Index
Parameter	Before preparation (DGC group) (1)	After preparation (DGC group) (2)	Before preparation (MC group) (3)	After preparation (MC group) (4)	p
Sperm concentration (106/mL)	105.15±58.35	39.19±30.77	81.06±47.79	33.35±33.72	p12<0.0001 p34<0.0001 p13=0.015 p24=0.326
Progressive motility (%)	49.57±19.33	90.12±5.51	39.60±18.05	84.22±11.03	p12<0.0001 p34<0.0001 p13=0.004 p24=0.0004
Viability (%)	84.25±8.88	96.95±3.71	81.97±8.57	97.45±2.97	p12<0.0001 p34<0.0001 p13=0.155 p24=0.900
Normal morphology (%)	3.41±1.26	7.80±2.91	3.23±1.40	8.52±3.33	p12<0.0001 p34<0.0001 p13=0.478 p24=0.211
DNA Fragmentation Index (DFI,%)	10.86±7.99	2.47±5.08	12.02±9.46	0.43±0.38	p12<0.0001 p34<0.0001 p13=0.472 p24=0.0024
DFI<15%	n=46 7.22±2.95 (2.33 - 13.88)	n=46 0.99±1.04 (0.09 - 5.51)	n=45 7.79±3.73 (1.57 - 4.75)	n=45 0.33±0.28 (0.02 - 1.08)	p12<0.0001 p34<0.0001 p13=0.418 p24=0.0001
DFI ≥15%	n=13 23.74±6.73 (15.69 - 41.12)	n=13 6.10±7.74 (0.93 - 26.70)	n=15 24.71±10.19 (16.53 -52.42)	n=15 0.73±0.48 (0.21 - 1.83)	p12<0.0001 p34<0.0001 p13=0.774 p24<0.0001
Sperm recovery rate		20.59±14.28		24.60±20.62	0.220
Motile sperm recovery rate		30.59±2.01		44.41±3.95	<0.0001